djangoproject/first_django_app.md

# First Django App

Target: create a basic poll application, with 2 parts a **public site** and a **admin site**

* **public site**: let's pp view polls and vote
* **admin site**: let's you(admin) add/change/delete poll

## Part 1

1. Create web project
2. Create 1st app
3. Create 1st view
4. Add view & app into web url
### Creating a project

In the source directory, create project by

```
$ django-admin startproject <project_name>
```

Constraint on `<project_name>`:
* don't use names that conflict with django
  * e.g. `django`, `test` (test with built-in test file)

```
mysite/
    manage.py
    mysite/
        __init__.py
        settings.py
        urls.py
        asgi.py
        wsgi.py
```

Explain file structure:
* top-level `mysite/`: container of the project, can be renamed latter w/o affect Django framework
* `manage.py`: cmd-line utility let us to interact (admin) with Django projects.
* inner `mysite/` dir: actual Python package for the project. 
  * Importing any package from here: e.g. `mysite.urls`
* `mysite/__init__.py`: empty file, tell python start from here.
* `mysite/settings.py`: settings/config for this django project. 
* `mysite/urls.py`: URL declarations for this Django pjt; a "table of contents" of this Django website.
* `mysite/asgi.py`: An entry-point for ASGI-compatible webservers
* `mysite/wsgi.py`: Entry-point for WSGI-compatible webservers

### The development server

Start server steps:
1. cd into outer `mysite/` dir
2. Start server via: `python manage.py runserver`

Outcome:

* A development server is started. So no need to config a production server (e.g. Apache)
* Note: don't use it as production environment.

### Creating the Polls app

> Projects vs. apps
> 
> What’s the difference between a project and an app? An app is a Web application that does something – e.g., a Weblog system, a database of public records or a small poll app. A project is a collection of configuration and apps for a particular website. A project can contain multiple apps. An app can be in multiple projects.

Create a poll app along `mysite/`. For what?

```
$ python manage.py startapp polls
```

app hierarchy

```
polls/
    __init__.py
    admin.py
    apps.py
    migrations/
        __init__.py
    models.py
    tests.py
    views.py
```

### Write the first view

#### Step 1: Create a simple view of `polls` app

modify `polls/views.py` as

```python
from django.http import request
from django.shortcuts import render

def index(request):
    return HttpResponse("Hello, world. You're at the polls index")
```

* `def index(request):...` is the simplest view

#### Step 2: In `polls` app, map the URL to this view

After creating a view, map it to a URL so we can call it. Create `polls/urls.py`, and setup mapping `urlpatterns`

```python
from django.urls import path

from . import views

urlpatterns = [
    path('', views.index, name='index'),
]
```

#### Step 3: Point the root URLconf for polls

To point the root URLconf at `polls.urls` module:
1. In `mysite/urls.py`
   1. add import for `django.urls.inclue`
   2. insert a `include()` in `urlpatterns` list

i.e.

```python
from django.contrib import admin
from django.urls import include, path

urlpatterns = [
    path('polls/', include('polls.urls')),
    path('admin/', admin.site.urls),
]
```

##### django.urls.include()

> django.urls.include(): A function that takes a full Python import path to another URLconf module that should be “included” in this place.

* new imported `include()` function allows referencing other URLconfs.
* `'polls.urls'` is the package that we are using, hence `mysite` can connect to `polls` app

##### path()

Here `path()` function is passed **route** and **view**; two additional option available **kwargs**, and **name**

* `path()` argument **route**: a string that contains a URL pattern. When Django processing a request, it starts at the first pattern in `urlpatterns` and go down the list, comparing requested URL against each pattern
* `path()` argument **view**: when Django finds a matching pattern, it calls specified view function (a `HttpRequest` obj as the 1st argument, and others captured values as keyword argument)
* `path()` argument **kwargs**: passed in a dictionary to the target view
* `path()` argument **name**: naming URL, so we can refer to it elsewhere.

## Part 2

### Database setup

1. Modify `mysite/settings.py` for database binding
2. `python manage.py migrate` create database for each app

### Models Creation

在 Django 里写一个数据库驱动的 Web 应用的第一步: **定义模型** - 也就是数据库结构设计和附加的其它元数据 Meta Data

### Activate Models

改变模型需要这三步：

* 编辑 models.py 文件，改变模型
* 运行 python manage.py makemigrations 为模型的改变生成迁移文件。
* 运行 python manage.py migrate 来应用数据库迁移。

在这之前，确认polls已经在 INSTALLED_APPS的settings中。

详情如何使用 `manage.py` 可check [Django后台文档](https://docs.djangoproject.com/zh-hans/3.1/ref/django-admin/)

### Test API

进入 `python manage.py shell` 可以使用Django创建的各种API，如[数据库抽象API database API(建议细看)](https://docs.djangoproject.com/zh-hans/3.1/topics/db/queries/)

## Part 3

* In Django, web content & HTML come from Views models. Every view is a Python function/class. Django use customer requested URL to decide which View to generate.
* Django use 'URLconfs' to map btw URL and Views. Details of[pURL manager](https://docs.djangoproject.com/zh-hans/3.1/topics/http/urls/)
* URL's general form: `/newsarchive/<year>/<month>/`

### 3.1 Create more Views

> 当某人请求你网站的某一页面时——比如说， "/polls/34/" ，Django 将会载入 mysite.urls 模块，因为这在配置项 ROOT_URLCONF 中设置了。然后 Django 寻找名为 urlpatterns 变量并且按序匹配正则表达式。在找到匹配项 'polls/'，它切掉了匹配的文本（"polls/"），将剩余文本——"34/"，发送至 'polls.urls' URLconf 做进一步处理。在这里剩余文本匹配了 "<int:question_id>/"，使得我们 Django 以如下形式调用 polls.urls.detail():
> `detail(request=<HttpRequest object>, question_id=34)`

### 3.2 Create a true useful View

每个视图必须要做的只有两件事：返回一个包含被请求页面内容的 HttpResponse 对象，或者抛出一个异常，比如 Http404 。至于你还想干些什么，随便你。

你的视图可以从数据库里读取记录，可以使用一个模板引擎（比如 Django 自带的，或者其他第三方的），可以生成一个 PDF 文件，可以输出一个 XML，创建一个 ZIP 文件，你可以做任何你想做的事，使用任何你想用的 Python 库。

`django.shortcuts.render` 可以“载入模板，填充上下文，再返回由它生成的 HttpResponse 对象“

#### shortcut function: `render()`

「载入模板，填充上下文，再返回由它生成的 HttpResponse 对象」是一个非常常用的操作流程。于是 Django 提供了一个快捷函数 render

> The render() function takes the request object as its first argument, a template name as its second argument and a dictionary as its optional third argument. It returns an HttpResponse object of the given template rendered with the given context.

### 3.3 Throw 404 error

如果指定问题 ID 所对应的问题不存在，这个视图就会抛出一个 Http404 异常。

尝试用 get() 函数获取一个对象，如果不存在就抛出 Http404 错误也是一个普遍的流程。Django 也提供了一个快捷函数, 从而取代try/except语句

> 什么我们使用辅助函数 get_object_or_404() 而不是自己捕获 ObjectDoesNotExist 异常呢？还有，为什么模型 API 不直接抛出 ObjectDoesNotExist 而是抛出 Http404 呢？
> 因为这样做会增加模型层和视图层的耦合性。指导 Django 设计的最重要的思想之一就是要保证松散耦合。一些受控的耦合将会被包含在 django.shortcuts 模块中。

### 3.4 Using template system

[Templates in Django](https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/3.1/topics/templates/)

`polls/detail.html` 模板里正式的代码:

```html
<h1>{{ question.question_text }}</h1>
<ul>
{% for choice in question.choice_set.all %}
    <li>{{ choice.choice_text }}</li>
{% endfor %}
</ul>
```

模板系统统一使用点符号来访问变量的属性

### 3.5 Remove hardlink URL in template

In template `polls/index.html`, links are hardcoded as shown

```html
    {% for question in latest_question_list %}
        <li><a href="/polls/{{ question.id }}/">{{ question.question_text }}</a></li>
    {% endfor %}
```

Consider `index.html` will be reused numerous times, 去耦合is necessary.

```html
<li><a href="{% url 'detail' question.id %}">{{ question.question_text }}</a></li>
```

### 3.6 为 URL 名称添加命名空间

在根 URLconf 中添加命名空间 (namespace)

1. Add `app_name = 'polls'` for namespace in `poll.urls.py`
2. Change `detail` in `index.html` to `polls:detail`

## Part 4. Form

### 4.1 编写一个简单的表单

Edit `polls/templates/polls/detail.html` so it contain **`HTML<form>`** elements:

```html
<h1>{{ question.question_text }}</h1>

{% if error_message %}<p><strong>{{ error_message }}</strong></p>{% endif %}

<form action="{% url 'polls:vote' question.id %}" method="post">
{% csrf_token %}
{% for choice in question.choice_set.all %}
    <input type="radio" name="choice" id="choice{{ forloop.counter }}" value="{{ choice.id }}">
    <label for="choice{{ forloop.counter }}">{{ choice.choice_text }}</label><br>
{% endfor %}
<input type="submit" value="Vote">
</form>
```

Explain:

* 当有人选择一个单选按钮并提交表单提交时，它将发送一个 POST 数据 choice=# ，其中# 为选择的 Choice 的 ID。这是 HTML 表单的基本概念。
* 我们设置表单的 action 为 {% url 'polls:vote' question.id %} ，并设置 method="post" 。使用 method="post"``（与其相对的是 ``method="get"`）是非常重要的，因为这个提交表单的行为会改变服务器端的数据。 **无论何时，当你需要创建一个改变服务器端数据的表单时，请使用 ``method="post"** 。这不是 Django 的特定技巧；这是优秀的网站开发技巧。
* 所有针对内部 URL 的 POST 表单都应该使用 {% csrf_token %} 模板标签。

修改 `view.py`, 将Choice 逻辑灌输入其中。

```python
def vote(request, question_id):
    question = get_object_or_404(Question, pk=question_id)
    try:
        # request.POST 是一个类字典对象 (dictionary-like object)，让你可以通过关键字的名字获取提交的数据。
        # request.POST['choice'] 以字符串形式返回选择的 Choice 的 ID
        selected_choice = question.choice_set.get(pk=request.POST['choice'])
    except (KeyError, Choice.DoesNotExist):
        # 如果在 request.POST['choice'] 数据中没有提供 choice ， POST 将引发一个 KeyError 。上面的代码检查 KeyError ，如果没有给出 choice 将重新显示 Question 表单和一个错误信息。

        # Redisplay the question voting form.
        return render(request, 'polls/detail.html', {
            'question': question,
            'error_message': "You didn't select a choice.",
        })
    else:
        selected_choice.votes += 1
        selected_choice.save()

        # 在增加 Choice 的得票数之后，代码返回一个 HttpResponseRedirect 而不是常用的 HttpResponse 、 HttpResponseRedirect 只接收一个参数：用户将要被重定向的 URL

        # Always return an HttpResponseRedirect after successfully dealing
        # with POST data. This prevents data from being posted twice if a
        # user hits the Back button.
        return HttpResponseRedirect(reverse('polls:results', args=(question.id,)))
        # 我们在 HttpResponseRedirect 的构造函数中使用 reverse() 函数。这个函数避免了我们在视图函数中硬编码 URL。它需要我们给出我们想要跳转的视图的名字和该视图所对应的 URL 模式中需要给该视图提供的参数。在本例中，使用在 教程第 3 部分 中设定的 URLconf， reverse() 调用将返回一个这样的字符串：'/polls/3/results/' 其中 3 是 question.id 的值。重定向的 URL 将调用 'results' 视图来显示最终的页面。
```

当有人对 Question 进行投票后， vote() 视图将请求重定向到 Question 的结果界面 (result view), edit it:

```python
def results(request, question_id):
    question = get_object_or_404(Question, pk=question_id)
    return render(request, 'polls/results.html', {'question': question})
```

同时，我们需要创建一个`polls/results.html` template

```python
<h1>{{ question.question_text }}</h1>

<ul>
{% for choice in question.choice_set.all %}
    <li>{{ choice.choice_text }} -- {{ choice.votes }} vote{{ choice.votes|pluralize }}</li>
{% endfor %}
</ul>

<a href="{% url 'polls:detail' question.id %}">Vote again?</a>
```

### 4.2 使用通用视图(generic views)：代码还是少点好

Web 开发中的一个常见情况：根据 URL 中的参数从数据库中获取数据、载入模板文件然后返回渲染后的模板。 由于这种情况特别常见，Django 提供一种快捷方式，叫做“通用视图”系统。

让我们将我们的投票应用转换成使用通用视图系统，这样我们可以删除许多我们的代码。我们仅仅需要做以下几步来完成转换，我们将：

* 转换 URLconf。
* 删除一些旧的、不再需要的视图。
* 基于 Django 的通用视图引入新的视图。


#### Modify URLconf of polls

Change 

```python
    # ex: /polls/
    path('', views.index, name='index'),
    # ex: /polls/5/
    path('<int:question_id>/', views.detail, name='detail'),
    # ex: /polls/5/results/
    path('<int:question_id>/results/', views.results, name='results'),
```

to

```python
    path('', views.IndexView.as_view(), name='index'),
    path('<int:pk>/', views.DetailView.as_view(), name='detail'),
    path('<int:pk>/results/', views.ResultsView.as_view(), name='results'),
```

* 注意，第二个和第三个匹配准则中，路径字符串中匹配模式的名称已经由 <question_id> 改为 <pk> (primary key)。

#### Modify Views

Target: Replace `index`, `details` & `results` views using Django's generic views that named in `polls/urls.py`

将

```python
def index(request):
    latest_question_list = Question.objects.order_by('-pub_date')[:5]
    context = {'latest_question_list': latest_question_list}
    return render(request, 'polls/index.html', context)

def detail(request, question_id):
    question = get_object_or_404(Question, pk=question_id)
    return render(request, 'polls/detail.html', {'question': question})

def results(request, question_id):
    question = get_object_or_404(Question, pk=question_id)
    return render(request, 'polls/results.html', {'question': question})
```

改为

```python
class IndexView(generic.ListView):
    template_name = 'polls/index.html'
    context_object_name = 'latest_question_list'

    def get_queryset(self):
        """Return the last five published questions."""
        return Question.objects.order_by('-pub_date')[:5]

class DetailView(generic.DetailView):
    model = Question
    template_name = 'polls/detail.html'

class ResultsView(generic.DetailView):
    model = Question
    template_name = 'polls/results.html'
```

两个通用视图： ListView 和 DetailView 。这两个视图分别抽象“显示一个对象列表”和“显示一个特定类型对象的详细信息页面”这两种概念。
* 每个通用视图需要知道它将作用于哪个模型。 这由 model 属性 (i.e. model members) 提供。
* DetailView 期望从 URL 中捕获名为 "pk" 的主键值，所以我们为通用视图把 question_id 改成 pk 。

解释 DetailView
* 默认情况下，通用视图 DetailView 使用一个叫做 <app name>/<model name>_detail.html 的模板。
  * e.g. "polls/question_detail.html" template for us.
* 但是我们可以用 model member `template_name` 来指定模板

解释 ListView
* ListView 也使用一个叫做 <app name>/<model name>_list.html 的默认模板
* 而这里我们使用 `template_name` 来指定模板
* 我们提供 context_object_name 属性，表示我们想使用 latest_question_list

重启服务器后，就是新的投票应用（同样的html），但是内部用了generic view

## Part 5 Automated Test

TDD with python. Always stick to it.

### 5.1 First test

#### Create/Verify a bug

幸运的是，我们的 polls 应用现在就有一个小 bug 需要被修复：我们的要求是如果 Question 是在一天之内发布的， Question.was_published_recently() 方法将会返回 True ，然而现在这个方法在 Question 的 pub_date 字段比当前时间还晚时也会返回 True（这是个 Bug）。

确认bug:

```
>>> import datetime
>>> from django.utils import timezone
>>> from polls.models import Question
>>> # create a Question instance with pub_date 30 days in the future
>>> future_question = Question(pub_date=timezone.now() + datetime.timedelta(days=30))
>>> # was it published recently?
>>> future_question.was_published_recently()
True
```

#### Create a test to verify this bug

All tests (polls/tests.py) are in app directory

```python
import datetime

from django.test import TestCase
from django.utils import timezone

from .models import Question

class QuestionModelTests(TestCase):

    def test_was_published_recently_with_future_question(self):
        """
        was_published_recently() returns False for questions whose pub_date is in future
        """

        time = timezone.now() + datetime.timedelta(days=30)
        future_question = Question(pub_date=time)
        self.assertIs(future_question.was_published_recently(), False)
```

Result

```
python manage.py test polls
Creating test database for alias 'default'...
System check identified no issues (0 silenced).
F
======================================================================
FAIL: test_was_published_recently_with_future_question (polls.tests.QuestionModelTests)
was_published_recently() returns False for questions whose pub_date is in future
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "/home/jason/HomeWorkstation/SynologyGiteaSpace/djangoproject/src/polls/tests.py", line 17, in test_was_published_recently_with_future_question
    self.assertIs(future_question.was_published_recently(), False)
AssertionError: True is not False

----------------------------------------------------------------------
Ran 1 test in 0.001s

FAILED (failures=1)
Destroying test database for alias 'default'...
```

解释上述msg:
* python manage.py test polls 将会寻找 polls 应用里的测试代码
* 它找到了 django.test.TestCase 的一个子类
* 它创建一个特殊的数据库供测试使用
* 它在类中寻找测试方法——以 test 开头的方法。
* 在 test_was_published_recently_with_future_question 方法中，它创建了一个 pub_date 值为 30 天后的 Question 实例。
* 接着使用 assertls() 方法，发现 was_published_recently() 返回了 True，而我们期望它返回 False。

#### Fix the bug

Fix bug in `polls/models.py`

```python
    def was_published_recently(self):
        now = timezone.now()
        return now - datetime.timedelta(days=1) <= self.pub_date <= now
```

#### Comprehensive Tests

Write more tests to make sure it's comprehensive

```python
    def test_was_published_recently_with_old_question(self):
        """
        was_published_recently() returns False for questions whose pub_date is older than 1 day.
        """

        time = timezone.now() - datetime.timedelta(days=1, seconds=1)
        old_quesion = Question(pub_date=time)
        self.assertIs(old_quesion.was_published_recently(), False)

    def test_was_published_recently_with_recent_question(self):
        """
        was_published_recently() returns True for questions whose pub_date is within the last day.
        """

        time = timezone.now() - datetime.timedelta(hours=23, minutes=59, seconds=59)
        recent_question = Question(pub_date=time)
        self.assertIs(recent_question.was_published_recently(), True)
```

### 5.2 Test a view

Target: 如果 pub_date 设置为未来某天，这应该被解释为这个问题将在所填写的时间点才被发布，而在之前是不可见的。

#### A test for a view

We use TDD (i.e. test first, then develop)

#### The Django test client

Django provides a test **Client** (a class) to simulate a user interacting with the code at the view level.

We can try it in interactive shell following the guide

#### Test and Improve our view

Add following in `tests.py`

```python
def create_question(question_text, days):
    """
    Create a question with the given `question_text` and published the
    given number of `days` offset to now (negative for questions published
    in the past, positive for questions that have yet to be published).
    """
    time = timezone.now() + datetime.timedelta(days=days)
    return Question.objects.create(question_text=question_text, pub_date=time)


class QuestionIndexViewTests(TestCase):
    def test_no_questions(self):
        """
        If no questions exist, an appropriate message is displayed.
        """
        response = self.client.get(reverse('polls:index'))
        self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200)
        self.assertContains(response, "No polls are available.")
        self.assertQuerysetEqual(response.context['latest_question_list'], [])

    def test_past_question(self):
        """
        Questions with a pub_date in the past are displayed on the
        index page.
        """
        create_question(question_text="Past question.", days=-30)
        response = self.client.get(reverse('polls:index'))
        self.assertQuerysetEqual(
            response.context['latest_question_list'],
            ['<Question: Past question.>']
        )

    def test_future_question(self):
        """
        Questions with a pub_date in the future aren't displayed on
        the index page.
        """
        create_question(question_text="Future question.", days=30)
        response = self.client.get(reverse('polls:index'))
        self.assertContains(response, "No polls are available.")
        self.assertQuerysetEqual(response.context['latest_question_list'], [])

    def test_future_question_and_past_question(self):
        """
        Even if both past and future questions exist, only past questions
        are displayed.
        """
        create_question(question_text="Past question.", days=-30)
        create_question(question_text="Future question.", days=30)
        response = self.client.get(reverse('polls:index'))
        self.assertQuerysetEqual(
            response.context['latest_question_list'],
            ['<Question: Past question.>']
        )

    def test_two_past_questions(self):
        """
        The questions index page may display multiple questions.
        """
        create_question(question_text="Past question 1.", days=-30)
        create_question(question_text="Past question 2.", days=-5)
        response = self.client.get(reverse('polls:index'))
        self.assertQuerysetEqual(
            response.context['latest_question_list'],
            ['<Question: Past question 2.>', '<Question: Past question 1.>']
        )
```

Testing generated

```
Creating test database for alias 'default'...
System check identified no issues (0 silenced).
FF......
======================================================================
FAIL: test_future_question (polls.tests.QuestionIndexViewTests)
Questions with a pub_date in the future aren't displayed on
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "/home/jason/HomeWorkstation/SynologyGiteaSpace/djangoproject/src/polls/tests.py", line 77, in test_future_question
    self.assertContains(response, "No polls are available.")
  File "/home/jason/miniconda3/envs/django/lib/python3.8/site-packages/django/test/testcases.py", line 470, in assertContains
    self.assertTrue(real_count != 0, msg_prefix + "Couldn't find %s in response" % text_repr)
AssertionError: False is not true : Couldn't find 'No polls are available.' in response

======================================================================
FAIL: test_future_question_and_past_question (polls.tests.QuestionIndexViewTests)
Even if both past and future questions exist, only past questions
----------------------------------------------------------------------
Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "/home/jason/HomeWorkstation/SynologyGiteaSpace/djangoproject/src/polls/tests.py", line 88, in test_future_question_and_past_question
    self.assertQuerysetEqual(
  File "/home/jason/miniconda3/envs/django/lib/python3.8/site-packages/django/test/testcases.py", line 1052, in assertQuerysetEqual
    return self.assertEqual(list(items), values, msg=msg)
AssertionError: Lists differ: ['<Question: Future question.>', '<Question: Past question.>'] != ['<Question: Past question.>']

First differing element 0:
'<Question: Future question.>'
'<Question: Past question.>'

First list contains 1 additional elements.
First extra element 1:
'<Question: Past question.>'

- ['<Question: Future question.>', '<Question: Past question.>']
+ ['<Question: Past question.>']

----------------------------------------------------------------------
Ran 8 tests in 0.018s

FAILED (failures=2)
Destroying test database for alias 'default'...
```

Fix it by change `get_queryset()` method in Question. 让他它能通过将 Question 的 pub_data 属性与 timezone.now() 相比较来判断是否应该显示此 Question

#### Testing the DetailView

Target: hide future questions even if user type correct URL

Add test cases first

```python
class QuestionDetailViewTests(TestCase):
    def test_future_question(self):
        """
        The detail view of a question with a pub_date in the future returns a 404 not found.
        """
        future_question = create_question(question_text="Future question.", days=5)
        url = reverse('poll:detail', args=(future_question.id, ))
        response = self.client.get(url)
        self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 404)

    def test_past_questioin(self):
        """
        The detail view of a question with a pub_date in the past displays the question's text.
        """
        past_question = create_question(question_text='Past Question.', days=-5)
        url = reverse('polls:detail', args=(past_question.id,))
        response = self.client.get(url)
        self.assertContains(response, past_question.question_text)
```